Project Management and Leadership Essay Example for Free

Project Management and Leadership Essay Leadership is a set of profound practical approaches that determine the success of various change projects within any organizational context. Leadership has already turned into the instrument of guidance and direction for the majority of international and local companies. The close conjunction of leadership and management guarantees that the company will take stable position on the market in the long-term period. Leadership helps determine the basic priorities of the company’s development and lead the organizational process towards predetermined goals and objectives. Innovation and change remain the two key components of the successful leadership; the ability to implement innovative decisions and strategic changes determines the success of any leadership strategy that is implemented within specific company. The development of shared vision, communication strategies, and commitment determines the success of management projects in the constantly evolving organizational environment. Successful leadership: innovation and change Change is the key to successful management. The ability to implement changes determines whether the company is able to stay afloat in the constantly changing competitive environment. Change is intensely personal. For change to occur in any organization, each individual must think, feel, or do something different† (Duck, 1993). That is why leadership skills require understanding the significance of change. Leadership cannot exist without change; without leadership, the change cannot become real. For the change to become relevant and useful, the leader should guarantee that all followers have their experience and thinking conversed to end up in the â€Å"at a predetermined place at approximately the same time† (Duck, 1993). Such approach to leadership will ensure that the leader and the followers follow the same leadership line, clearly understand their performance goals, and possess sufficient and effective tools for achieving these goals. These leadership approaches will also insure the sharedness of thinking, and the leader’s realization of possible problems and obstacles on the way towards organizational and performance highs. Change requires innovative thinking; change means developing new thinking; change implies meeting the challenges which leaders and followers have never confronted before. The combination of innovation and change in leadership serves the instrument for addressing the major challenges and tasks within any organizational framework. However, how do we shape the required leadership framework that allows implementing changes and affecting the process of organizational performance? Several key factors determine perfect leadership. Leadership is the critical element that guarantees appropriate balance between leaders, managers, and employers from all company’s divisions. To be a leader and to manage changes means to be able to stabilize the relationships between the leader and the group of followers, who further carry the leader’s vision of organizational change across all organizational levels. Duck (1993) writes that managing change means managing the conversation between the people leading the change effort and those who are expected to implement the new strategies, managing the organizational context in which change can occur, and managing the emotional connections that are essential for any transformation. Thus, leadership is the source, the initial stage, and the ruling force of transformations within any organizational context, but it becomes irrelevant if the leader is not able to deliver the message, the mission, and to develop emotional connections between the separate elements of the organizational structure. Leadership is impossible without conversation; leadership is also impossible without the already mentioned emotional connections. Leadership cannot turn into management, and cannot bring any positive results if is does not turn into the tangible set of organizational goals. Such transformation is impossible if the leader fails to speak his ideas to the followers in a way that makes them comprehensible and achievable. The leader’s ability to speak the goals and methods of organizational change implies that the leader is able to move the employees out of their control zones, and to establish the sense of urgency in terms of any organizational change and any organizational objective. Overestimation of leader’s abilities to move people ahead is one of the major mistakes a leader makes at the first stage of implementing change. Most successful change efforts begin when some individuals or some groups start to look hard at a company’s competitive situation, market position, technological trends, and financial performance† (Kotter, 1995). However, it is not enough for a good leader to realize the scope of the needed changes, and the need to change the current organizational context; successful leadership has a clear vision of how the minds of the followers should be changed to make them follow the leader and to realize the critical need for a change. Followers should be moved; they should be pushed towards changes. Followers require motivation, and a successful leader is the source of this motivation. To see the need for change may be easy, but it is a deceptive impression. In reality, the first stage of change management is the most difficult of all: employees should be motivated and driven. As soon as the employees and followers are motivated and driven towards change, the next stages of change implementation will be faster, easier, and more goal-oriented. A good leader will never quit if change efforts fail at the initial stage of change initiative. A good leader is able to distinguish the major problems, to facilitate the frank discussion of these problems with the followers, and to further promote the importance of change championships across all company’s departments. Here, ideal leadership combines the sense of urgency with the ability to persuade the followers that the first failure does not indicate the need to give up the whole change management process. The sense of urgency is always reasonable and important: â€Å"when the urgency rate is not pumped enough, the transformation process cannot success and the long-term future of the organization is put in jeopardy† (Kotter, 1995). A successful leader will never be too safe; a successful leader will not be too cautious, but will constantly move towards the predetermined goal, overcoming obstacles, meeting challenges, and inspiring the followers. The urgency rate is high enough to transfer to the next stage of change management, when the three quarters of the company management are convinced that change is inevitable. â€Å"People in the organization may need to hear a message over and over before they believe that this time, the call for changes is not just a whim or a passing fancy. It takes time for people to hear, understand, and believe the message† (Duck, 1993). A successful leader is not only able to deliver the message, but can objectively evaluate the responses from team members. Duck (1993) says that â€Å"what counts is the point of view of everyone else in the organization†, and the success of change management depends on whether the leader is able to interpret, reinterpret, and reevaluate the way followers see the ultimate goals of organizational changes. Communication and balance requires understanding whether followers believe in the success of change, and whether they know what this change means for them and for the organization in general. The leader’s role is to understand whether employees require leadership assistance to better understand the ultimate goals of the implemented change, and whether they are able to communicate their concerns to the leader. When the leader is able to pass the first stage of change management and to incorporate his vision into the minds and souls of employees, the next stage is to make the followers communicate their opinions. A perfect leader will never compel his followers to deliver â€Å"a winning love vision† as soon as employees are involved into change management process (Davenport, 2005). To expect this type of response means to put the whole change management process under the threat of failure. The need to communicate is justified by the need to create different systems of employees’ opinions and thoughts; these subsequently form cohesive working teams that further lead the organization to a new changed position. For a good leader, the followers’ viewpoints are the keys to creating an integrated and well guided coalition of thinkers who realize the need for the change and are ready to act. A good leader understands that a good team is not created overnight; â€Å"the leadership coalition grows and grows over time† (Kotter, 1995). A good leader understands that it is not necessary to involve all senior managers into change management process; on the contrary, a careful analysis of the team members is required before they enter the change process altogether. â€Å"In both small and large organizations, a successful guiding team may consist of only three to five people during the first year of a renewal effort. But in big companies, the coalition needs to grow to the 20 to 50 range before much progress can be made in phase three and beyond† (Kotter, 1995). A good leader realizes that the number of team members is not critical; content is more important when it comes to guiding change initiatives. Leadership implies the importance of team integrity and performance integrity (Sirkin, Keenan Jackson, 2005). â€Å"By performance integrity, we mean the extent to which companies can rely on teams of managers, supervisors, and staff to execute change projects successfully† (Sirkin, Keenan Jackson, 2005). The integrity between the leader, managers, supervisors and the staff determines the stability and success of leadership. Senior managers are frequently reluctant to invite key performers into the team, but a successful leader realizes the value and importance of these performers for the whole process of change management. That is why the company should make everything possible to free these performers from their routine work and to provide them with sufficient â€Å"change freedom† within the change team. With the key performers being involved, the project team will be able to handle a wide range of pressures, challenges, and obstacles.

A View From The Bridge by Arthur Miller Essay example -- View From Bri

A View From The Bridge by Arthur Miller Alfieri is a lawyer who works for the Sicilian community in Brooklyn. He opens the play with a very exposing account of what life used to be like and is like in that particular community. The audience knows from that speech everything about Alfieri and about the community in Red Hook. He launches into graphic detail about past bandits and murders and about how justice is very important to the Italians. The community is the 'gullet of New York, ´ which is 'swallowing the tonnage of the world. ´ This sentence is quite ironic since Red Hook is a fishing town and tonnage is another word for cargo. Alfieri speaks as though Red Hook has swallowed up all the complications of the world and is now reduced to a slum. This creates a vivid mental picture and therefore invents the ideal environment for tragic goings on. Alfieri also utters an intriguing statement, 'now we settle for half. ´ This proclamation gives the impression that in this Italian community pride and justice is fierce and that no one will settle for half of what they believe is right. Alfieri makes this statement in the past tense leaving the question did the events that Alfieri witness determine whether people settle for half. He also wonders if there is another unfortunate lawyer sitting back, unable to do anything as the events, 'run their bloody course. ´ The indirect reference to blood creates another question about whether blood will be shed, considering the Italian community has a reputation to fight to the death. Alfieri is essential to the structure of the play as he opens and closes the play. I believe that he is Arthur Miller's mouthpiece and he moves the action that Miller has once witnessed. Edd... ... not. If Eddie had managed to get Catherine, it would have been unnatural and ridiculous. Beatrice notices the relationship but her unwillingness to speak out makes her part of the problem. The reason why Eddie betrayed his wife ´s cousins is that he loved Catherine so much. However, even Eddie Carbone could not stand in the way of fate. Rodolpho and Catherine were meant to be together and no amount of vigorous and passionate arguing could stop fate from running its natural course. The doom in this play starts at the very beginning with Eddie ´s outward and awkward feeling for Catherine, when he claims her as his own. The prospect of dooms mounts as the play goes on, but the main factor is that the play is about incestuous love, jealousy and betrayal. When these are combined with an underprivileged, passionate Italian way of life, the results are harsh.

Blue Nile Study Questions

Marking Scheme Mid Semester Exams Lecturers: Anthony Oboe Spool and Robert Amok-LIndsay Section A (40 Marks) Provide Short and concise answers 1 Explain the term sustainable competitive advantage and why it is so Important to a winning business strategy. (5 marks) Suggested Answer A company achieves sustainable competitive advantage when an attractive number or buyers prefer its products/services over those of rivals and when the basis for this preference can be maintained over time.Competitive advantage could stem from offering lower prices than competitors for equivalent benefits or providing unique benefits that more than offset a higher price. (3 marks) Sustainable competitive advantage is necessary for a firm to win in the market place. It is required for a strategy to deliver on strategic and financial objectives (2 marks) 2. Using examples briefly explain and state the Importance of each of the following a) Strategic vision Strategic vision represents the destination that mana gement seeks to take a firm.Ford's vision â€Å"A car in every garage† Importance Give the organization a sense of direction Inform company personnel and other stakeholders what management wants Its business to look like Spur company personnel to action Provide managers with a reference point to (2. 5 marks for explanation and any 2 points mentioned as importance of strategic vision) b) Strategic mission Strategic mission of a firm focuses on its present business purpose. Strategic mission highlight the present products and services, types of customers served and how it intends to do that.Examples Beacon Books: â€Å"To inspire and equip business executives and entrepreneurs with essential information and knowledge they require for professional and personal growth† Google: â€Å"To organize the world's information and make it universally accessible and useful† Importance: It focuses the business by identifying the boundaries of the current business It distinguis hes a firm from others and gives it an identity of its own. (2. 5 marks) (5 marks) 3. Explain the meaning and significance of each of the following: a. Strategic group mapping A strategic group is a cluster of firms in an industry with similar competitive approaches and market positions. Strategic group mapping entails plotting firms in n industry on a two-variable map using pairs of these differentiating characteristics e. G. Product line breadth, distribution channel use, geographic coverage, price, quality etc. It helps firms to know their positions in the industry versus their rivals It helps firms to know which competitors to focus on in their quest to make strategic moves It helps them to know which positions in the market or industry are attractive to players in the market. 2. 5 marks for explanation of strategic group mapping and any of the above points mentioned) b. ) The bargaining power of suppliers Bargaining power of suppliers defines the extent to which suppliers of in puts to competing firms in an industry are able to dictate the price, quality, quantity and even timing of supplies to these firms. The bargaining power of suppliers has an impact on the cost, profitability and a firm's ability to satisfy its customers and for that matter its competitiveness. Powerful 4.Identify and briefly explain any two of the factors that influence the strength or intensity of competitive rivalry among an industry member firms. (5 marks) Factors Competitors are active in making fresh moves to improve market standing and easiness performance Slow market growth Number of rivals increases and rivals are of equal size and competitive capability Buyer costs to switch brands are low Industry conditions tempt rivals to use price cuts or other competitive weapons to boost volume e. . Perishable or seasonal A successful strategic move carries a big payoff Outsiders acquire weak firms in the industry and use their resources to transform new firms into major market contend ers (5 marks for any two of the above factors mentioned and explained) 5†¦ Identify and briefly explain any two factors that lead to strong bargaining power on the part of suppliers. (5 marks)Industry members incur high costs in switching their purchases to alternative suppliers Needed inputs are in short supply Supplier provides a differentiated input that enhances the quality of performance of sellers' products or is a valuable part of sellers' production process There are only a few suppliers of a specific input Some suppliers threaten to integrate forward (5 marks for any two of the above factors mentioned and explained) strength and leverage of buyers. 5 marks) Buyer switching costs to competing brands or substitutes are low Buyers are large and can demand concessions Large-volume purchases by buyers are important to sellers Buyer demand is weak or declining Only a few buyers exists Identity of buyer adds prestige to seller's list of customers Quantity and quality of infor mation available to buyers improves Buyers have ability to postpone purchases until later Buyers threaten to integrate backward (5 marks for any two of the above factors mentioned and discussed) 7.Using examples explain the difference between a core competence, and a distinctive competence. A core competence is a well-performed internal activity central to a company's competitiveness and profitability. It tends to relate to a firm's ability to perform activities that are critical for success in an industry e. G. A better after-sale service capability A distinctive competence is a competitively valuable activity a company performs better than its rivals.For example Toast's low cost, high quality manufacturing of automobiles â€Å"Lean Production† is far superior to that of other automakers, (5 marks for explanation and establishing the difference between core competence and distinctive competence) 8. What is benchmarking and why is it a strategically important analytical tool? (5 marks) Benchmark focuses on cross-company comparisons of how certain activities are reformed and costs associated with these activities. It looks at things such as purchase of materials, management of inventories, getting new products to the market and so on. 2 marks) Identify best and most efficient means of performing various value chain activities Learn what is the best way to perform a particular activity from those companies who have demonstrated that they are â€Å"best-in-industry' or â€Å"best-in-world† at performing the activity Learn what other firms do to perform an activity at lower cost Figure out what actions to take to improve a company's own cost competitiveness (3 marks for NY 2 points identified and explained) Section B (80 marks 1 . Analyze the competitive forces confronting Blue Nile and other online retail jeweler's.Do a five-forces analysis to support your answer. State the relative strength of each competitive force. Below is a representative five -forces model of competition for the online Jewelry business: Rivalry among online Jeweler's?a moderate to strong competitive force that is likely to intensify in the years ahead. Students should conclude that rivalry among Blue Nile and other online Jeweler's is normal to moderate, but it is likely to grow ore intense (owing to the success that Blue Nile is enjoying).Rivalry is centered on such factors as Price and value delivered to customers Selection and breadth/variety of product offerings Ability to customize and customization options The caliber and trustworthiness of the information/guidance provided to online shoppers (educational information, in-depth product information, access to professional grading reports, and so on) Image/reputation Customer service User friendliness of web site?search functionality, ease of browsing through all the selections, finding and understanding the information provided, etc.Refund and return policies Advertising and promotion?Much of the adv ertising/promotion is being done online, but the online Jewelry business is not one that is a heavy user of TV, radio, and newspaper advertising on a regular basis. Word-of-mouth is a fairly big factor Most online Jewelry competitors pursued either a differentiation strategy to try to set themselves apart or else tried to attract shoppers via the appeal of very low prices (which entailed employing a low-cost strategy).Some rivals focused their efforts narrowly on particular Jewelry items/product categories while others had broad reduce lines. Several factors were working to affect rivalry among industry participants: All rivals seem to be actively and busily trying to attract Jewelry shoppers to their websites, partly via online advertising and promotional initiatives (including search engine listings)?fresh strategic initiatives on the part of various rivals heightens rivalry. Low switching costs on the part of buyers?it is simple for people shopping for jewelry online to locate an d visit competitor web sites.Rivalry decreases when the rate of market growth rises?sales of Jewelry online seem o be growing briskly (with the sales increases coming at the expense of brick-and mortar Jewelry retailers). There is reason to suspect that the online Jewelry segment of the overall retail Jewelry industry is in its infancy (an emerging business or industry in its own right); hence, online sales of Jewelry are likely to grow faster than sales of Jewelry in general?a condition which will act to contain rivalry among online jeweler's.Rivalry increases when one or more rivals are dissatisfied with their market position and launch moves to bolster their standing at the expense of rivals. A case can be Dade that Blue Nile and most all of its online rivals are â€Å"dissatisfied† and thus are likely to make further moves to bolster their market standing, image, and sales. Rivalry increases as the product offerings of rivals become more standardized? many of the online J eweler's seems to be offering shopper many of the same things? wide selection, customization, educational information, access to grading reports, and so on.We see the differentiation among online Jewelry rivals as growing smaller/ weaker, not larger/stronger?with the possible exception of reputation/image, where Blue Nile seems to be the standout leader. Threat of entry?a moderate to strong competitive force Blue Niles success and growing reputation will almost certainly draw more competitors into online Jewelry sales. The barriers to entry into the online segment of the Jewelry industry are moderately The costs of developing a Web site.Developing supply chain relationships Developing order fulfillment capability and achieving short delivery times Expenditures for advertising and promotion needed to draw visitors to a web site and build a trustworthy reputation/image. In addition, students should see that the pool of entry candidates is probably fairly rage?especially for brick-and- mortar retailers already in the Jewelry business. Hence, the entry threat in upcoming years should be viewed as fairly strong. There would seem to be ample opportunity for new entrants to gain a market foothold and to achieve a level of sales high to be profitable.But the longer a company delays entry, the harder it will be to compete effectively against online Jeweler's like Blue Nile that have built a clientele and that have formidable images/reputations. Competition from substitute sellers of Jewelry?a very strong competitive force. Obviously, Jewelry shoppers have many other options for buying Jewelry than from online retailers. Traditional brick-and-mortar Jewelry retailers have the lion's share of the market and currently are the retailers of choice for the big majority of Jewelry shoppers. Hence, the competition that online Jeweler's face from other Jewelry retailers is quite formidable.In addition, there are hordes of possible substitutes for Jewelry altogether (but most peo ple are unlikely to see these alternatives as good substitutes). Consequently, students should conclude that substitutes for buying Jewelry online re a strong competitive force, given that Acceptable substitute sources for purchasing Jewelry are readily available and the prices charged by some of these substitute types of Jeweler's are reasonably competitive Buyer costs to switch to substitute types of Jewelry retailers are relatively low Many consumers are familiar with and comfortable with buying Jewelry from other than online Jewelry retailers.The bargaining power and leverage of suppliers to the online Jewelry retailers and jeweler-supplier collaboration?a moderately strong competitive force, especially as encores the suppliers of diamonds/gems and other Jewelry items. Students should recognize that the suppliers of gems/diamonds/]leery items have considerable bargaining power and leverage in determining the prices and terms at which they will supply their products.Yes, there ar e many alternative suppliers, and it would seem relatively easy for a it is doubtful that suppliers compete aggressively with one another on price?in other words, switching suppliers is unlikely to lead to acquiring a particular gem of particular quality at a lower price.There is no evidence in the case that suppliers of monads/gems compete with one another on the basis of price (indeed, with the exception of Blue Nile and other online Jeweler's, there is little evidence that price competition is active in the market for fine Jewelry?that is, rival Jeweler's are not aggressively trying to compete with one another by selling a diamond of given cut, clarity, grade, etc. At a lower price than their rivals). Blue Niles lower prices stem from its lower costs of doing business, not from the fact that it obtains diamonds/ gems at lower prices than do traditional retail Jeweler's.What is important for students to recognize here is that Blue Niles close elaboration with its diamond/gem suppl iers has resulted in giving it a lower cost value chain as compared to traditional Main Street Jeweler's. The distinctive feature of Blue Niles supply chain was its arrangements with leading diamond and gem suppliers that allowed it to display the suppliers' diamonds and gems on its web site; some of these arrangement entailed multi-year agreements whereby designated diamonds of the suppliers were offered to online consumers only at Blue Niles websites.Blue Niles suppliers represented more than half of the total supply of high-quality diamonds in the U. S. Blue Nile did not actually purchase a diamond or gem from these suppliers until an order was placed by a customer; this enabled Blue Nile to minimize the costs associated with carrying large inventories and limited its risk of potential mark-downs. Other online Jeweler's seem to have similar collaborative arrangements with their diamond/gem suppliers.These collaborative arrangements offer a sizable cost advantage over Main Street Jeweler's?these cost- saving arrangements put added competitive pressure on traditional local Jeweler's because such collaboration (and the resulting lower cost business model) puts them t a cost disadvantage. The bargaining power and leverage of Jewelry shoppers?a weak competitive force Individuals have little power to bargain for a lower price on the Jewelry items they are looking to purchase (except perhaps in the case of very expensive items where some price haggling is often fairly normal).Individuals can, of course, choose to buy or not buy at the marked price but no one individual is usually in a position to enter into direct negotiations over the terms and conditions under which he or she will purchase a diamond ring or other Jewelry item from an online retailer. Any individual an certainly opt to buy from one retailer rather than another, but this does not equate to bargaining and exerting leverage.Conclusions concerning the overall strength of competitive forces: Competiti ve pressures in online Jewelry retailing are strong but not overwhelming so (the best evidence for this is Blue Niles record of attracting new customers and growing its sales at a rapid clip?a convincing sign that it is able to successfully contend with the prevailing competitive forces). Currently, we see competition from substitute types of forces.The entry of new competitors could also prove to be significant, if one or more f the new entrants have a well-recognized and trusted brand name and if such entrants opt to price their products competitively versus the prices charged by Blue Nile. Moreover, while competition is fairly strong, it is not so strong as to prevent companies like Blue Nile from being profitable. The online Jewelry retailing portion of the Jewelry industry is rather attractive from the standpoint of promising growth and attractive long-term profitability?Blue Nile is demonstrating that its business model and strategy are quite attractive.This is the big reason why new entry can be expected. But online sales of fine Jewelry is likely to remain a relatively small fraction of total sales of fine Jewelry for years to come?traditional brick-and-mortar local jeweler's are not going to be driven out of business by online Jeweler's in the foreseeable future. (5 Marks for each point well discussed with the appropriate verdict or conclusion on each competitive force) 2. Do a SOOT analysis of Blue Nile. What are key conclusions you can draw about the its situation?Blue Niles Resource Strengths and Competitive Assets the current market leader in the online retail Jewelry segment by a wide margin AAA teeter known brand name and reputation than rivals AAA first-rate strategy and business model AAA broad and attractive product line from customers to choose from AAA user-friendly web site with good search functionality and very good educational information A sizable and competitively potent cost advantage over traditional local Jewelry stores due to lean operating costs and a cost-effective supply chain Its collaborative partnership arrangements with important diamond/gem suppliers Good product customization and order fulfillment capabilities (core competencies) Blue Niles ability o grow sales with very little incremental capital investment Blue Niles Resource Weaknesses and Competitive Liabilities Limited brand name recognition?many shoppers for fine Jewelry have never heard of Blue Nile Limited financial resources relative to bigger and better-known retail Jewelry chains There is nothing proprietary about Blue Niles strategy and business model?both are subject to imitation by rivals Market Opportunities Geographic expansion?entry into the markets of foreign countries Lots of room to grow the business by attracting customers away from traditional local Jewelry stores in the U. S. ?Blue Nile still has such a relatively small market share of the total market for fine Jewelry in the U. S. That it can continue to employ its current st rategy for many years. The more that the word spreads about Blue Niles attractive prices and quality the more it stands to steal away customers from traditional local Jeweler's.Product line expansion External Threats to Blue Niles Future Well-Being The entry of more online Jewelry rivals that opt to employ much the same strategy and business model?especially if these new entrants should be retailers that have a brand name that is more widely recognized and trusted than Blue Niles. Diamond/ gem suppliers either become less willing for Blue Nile to display their inventories on Blue Niles web site or decide not to renew their multi-year agreements with Blue Nile whereby certain designated diamonds in their inventories are offered to online consumers only at Blue Niles websites. (Blue Niles suppliers represented more than half of the total supply of high-quality diamonds in the U. S. Untold numbers of people shopping for fine Jewelry are very leery of buying fine Jewel online and thus a re not likely to ever be customers of Blue Nile Key Pointed and Conclusions Blue Niles strategy, business model, resource strengths, and competitive capabilities put it in a very strong market position to succeed in the online retail Jewelry business in the upcoming years?it is easy to understand why the company has been extremely successful in growing its sales over the past several years. Blue Nile would seem to have a sustainable cost advantage over traditional brick-and mortar retailers of fine Jewelry. Blue Nile has no resource weaknesses that make it highly vulnerable to competitive attack from local Jeweler's.

Mannerismâ€Art After the High Renaissance

After the High Renaissance in Italy, many wondered just where art was heading next. The answer? Mannerism. The new style first popped up in Florence and Rome, then the rest of Italy and, eventually, all over Europe. Mannerism, a phrase coined in the 20th century, is what happened artistically during the Late Renaissance (otherwise known as the years between Raphaels death and the beginning of the Baroque phase in 1600). Mannerism also represents Renaissance art going out, as they say, not with a bang but, rather, a (relative) whimper. The High Renaissance was, of course, astonishing. It represented a peak, a height, a veritable zenith (if you will) of artistic genius that surely must have owed something to a favorable zodiac. In fact, the only downside to the whole business was, with the Big Three Names diminished to one (Michelangelo) after 1520, where was art to go? It almost seemed as if art itself said Oh, what the hey. We could never top the High Renaissance, so why bother? Hence, Mannerism. Its not fair, though, to completely blame art for its loss of momentum after the High Renaissance. There were, as there always are, mitigating factors. For example, Rome was sacked in 1527, taken over by the armies of Charles V. Charles (who had previously just been Charles I, King of Spain) had himself crowned as Holy Roman Emperor and got to control things in most of Europe and the New World. By all accounts, he was not particularly interested in sponsoring art or artists—especially not Italian artists. Neither was he enamored with the idea of the independent city-states of Italy, and most of them lost their independent status. Additionally, a troublemaker named Martin Luther had been stirring things up in Germany, and the spread of his radical preaching was causing many to question the authority of the Church. The Church, of course, found this absolutely intolerable. Its response to the Reformation was to launch the Counter Reformation, a joyless, restrictive authoritative movement which had a zero-tolerance policy toward Renaissance innovations (among many, many other things). So here was poor art, deprived of most of its genius, patrons, and freedom. If Mannerism seems a bit half-posteriored to us now, it was honestly about the best that could be expected under the circumstances. Characteristics of Mannerism On the plus side, artists had gained lots of technical knowledge during the Renaissance (such as the use of oil paints and perspective) which would never again be lost to a dark age. Another new development at this time was rudimentary archaeology. The Mannerist artists now had actual works, from antiquity, to study. No longer did they need to use their respective imagination when it came to Classical stylization. That said, they (the Mannerist artists) almost seemed determined to use their powers for evil. Where High Renaissance art was natural, graceful, balanced and harmonious, the art of Mannerism was quite different. While technically masterful, Mannerist compositions were full of clashing colors, disquieting figures with abnormally elongated limbs (often torturous-looking), emotion and bizarre themes that combined Classicism, Christianity, and mythology. The nude, which had been rediscovered during the Early Renaissance, was still present during the Late but, heavens—the poses in which it found itself! Leaving compositional instability out of the picture (pun intended), no human could have maintained positions such as those depicted—clothed or otherwise. Landscapes suffered a similar fate. If the sky in any given scene wasnt a menacing color, it was filled with flying animals, malevolent putti, Grecian columns, or some other unnecessary busy-ness. Or all of the above. Whatever Happened to Michelangelo? Michelangelo, as things turned out, segued nicely into Mannerism. He was flexible, making transitions with his art that dovetailed with the transitions in all of those successive Popes who commissioned his work. Michelangelo had always had a tendency toward the dramatic and emotive in his art, as well as a sort of carelessness toward the human element in his human figures. It probably shouldnt have been surprising, then, to find that restorations of his works in the Sistine Chapel (the ceiling and Last Judgement frescoes) uncovered his use of a rather loud palette of colors. How Long Did the Late Renaissance Last? Depending on whos doing the figuring, Mannerism was en vogue around 80 years (give or take a decade or two). Though it lasted at least twice as long as the High Renaissance, the Late Renaissance got shoved aside, by the Baroque period, fairly quickly (as history goes). Which was a good thing, indeed, for those who are not great lovers of Mannerism—even though it was so distinct from High Renaissance art that it deserves its own name.